Policy Brief
Strengthening Citizen Participation in Local Governance for Effective Public Service Delivery in Karenni State, Myanmar
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Executive Summary
Since the 2021 military coup, Karenni State has become one of Myanmar’s most prominent laboratories for bottom-up governance. As formal state institutions collapsed, local administrations, Ethnic Resistance Organizations (EROs), civil society organizations (CSOs), and community leaders have stepped in to deliver essential public services, including education, healthcare, and humanitarian assistance. Central to the effectiveness and legitimacy of these emerging governance systems is citizen participation.
This policy brief examines the key barriers to citizen participation in local governance in Karenni State and analyzes how these barriers undermine effective public service delivery. Drawing on qualitative interviews with citizens, Township Administration Council (TAC) members, CSOs, and governance experts, the study finds that participation remains uneven and constrained by security concerns, economic hardship, limited capacity and connectivity, weak legal frameworks, and entrenched social norms—particularly gender norms.
Despite these challenges, Karenni’s Multi-Level Inclusive Governance System (MIGS) represents a significant departure from Myanmar’s historically centralized governance model. In some townships, notably Pekon, locally elected councils demonstrate higher levels of citizen power and accountability. However, in other areas where councils are appointed by EROs without elections, participation remains largely consultative or symbolic.
This brief argues that strengthening citizen participation is not merely a democratic ideal but a practical necessity for improving the relevance of services, accountability, and trust in conflict-affected settings. It concludes with targeted policy recommendations for interim authorities, EROs, CSOs, and international partners to deepen inclusive participation and enhance public service delivery in Karenni State.
1. Context and Policy Relevance
1.1 Post-Coup Governance in Karenni State
Following the February 2021 coup, Karenni State experienced intensified armed conflict, widespread displacement, and institutional breakdown. In this vacuum, locally driven governance structures emerged, led by the Interim Executive Council (IEC), Township Administration Councils (TACs), village-level administrations, and CSOs. These structures now shoulder responsibilities traditionally held by the state, from schooling and healthcare to humanitarian coordination.
Karenni’s governance experiment is highly relevant for:
- Bottom-up federalism debates in Myanmar
- Service delivery in conflict-affected and contested territories
- Donor engagement with non-state governance actors
1.2 Why Citizen Participation Matters
International evidence consistently shows that citizen participation:
- Improves service relevance and quality
- Strengthens accountability and transparency
- Builds legitimacy and trust in governing institutions
- Reduces conflict risks by addressing grievances early
In Karenni, participation is also politically significant: it signals a clear break from military authoritarianism and aligns with aspirations for a future federal democratic Myanmar.
2. Current Local Governance and Participation in Karenni
2.1 The Multi-Level Inclusive Governance System (MIGS)
Karenni’s MIGS integrates emerging bottom-up governance with existing ERO administrative structures. It emphasizes:
- Legitimacy through local involvement
- Inclusivity, especially gender and ethnic diversity
- Hybridity across multiple authorities
- Sustainability for long-term reconciliation
Three models of township governance currently operate:
- Fully elected councils (e.g., Pekon Township)
- Mixed councils (elected members + ERO representatives)
- Appointed councils (formed solely by EROs)
2.2 Levels of Citizen Participation
Using Arnstein’s Ladder of Participation, most townships fall between:
- Consultation and placation (citizens give input but lack decision power)
- Partnership (shared decision-making in some mixed councils)
Only Pekon approaches citizen control, where elections occur at multiple levels. This variation has direct implications for service effectiveness and public trust.
3. How Participation Shapes Public Service Delivery
Local administrations currently deliver:
- Education (community-based schools, teacher coordination)
- Healthcare (mobile clinics, referrals)
- Humanitarian assistance (IDP support, relief coordination)
Interview evidence shows that where participation is stronger:
- Services better reflect local needs
- Communities provide real-time feedback
- Citizens feel ownership, increasing cooperation and sustainability
Conversely, weak participation leads to:
- Mismatched priorities
- Low trust in authorities
- Reduced uptake of services
Citizen participation is therefore a core enabler of effective service delivery, not an optional add-on.
4. Key Barriers to Citizen Participation
4.1 Legal and Institutional Barriers
- Decades of centralized rule left citizens without enforceable participation rights
- Lack of formal legal recognition for new governance bodies
- Lingering fear from past repression continues to discourage engagement
Although current interim structures are more open, institutional uncertainty still limits confidence and participation.
4.2 Capacity and Connectivity Barriers
- Limited civic knowledge and governance skills among citizens
- Severe communication constraints due to:
- Absence of mobile networks
- High reliance on costly alternatives like Starlink
- Unequal access to information excludes remote and displaced communities
Participation remains structurally inaccessible without investment in capacity and communication infrastructure.
4.3 Economic and Livelihood Barriers
- Widespread displacement and poverty force citizens to prioritize survival
- Participation in governance is seen as secondary to food, shelter, and income
- Economic precarity leads to involuntary political disengagement
Without addressing basic needs, participation initiatives risk being symbolic.
4.4 Security and Conflict-Related Barriers
- Ongoing fighting limits mobility and safe assembly
- Fear of retaliation or political entanglement discourages involvement
- Displacement disrupts community continuity and representation
Conflict simultaneously enables and constrains local governance.
4.5 Social Norms and Gender Barriers
- Deep-rooted beliefs frame leadership as a male role
- Women’s participation is often invited rather than self-initiated
- Confidence gaps limit women’s influence even when formally included
Despite IEC policies encouraging 30% female participation, meaningful agency remains limited .
5. Policy Implications
The Karenni case highlights that:
- Participation is context-dependent and uneven
- Institutional openness alone is insufficient without capacity, security, and livelihoods
- Gender inclusion requires more than numerical targets
- Donors must adapt engagement models to hybrid, non-state governance systems
Ignoring participation risks undermining both service effectiveness and long-term political legitimacy.
6. Policy Recommendations
1. Strengthen Legal and Institutional Foundations
- Develop interim governance guidelines clarifying citizen participation rights
- Formalize roles and accountability of TACs and village administrations
- Support participatory rules compatible with future federal frameworks
2. Invest in Capacity and Civic Education
- Provide leadership, governance, and confidence-building training
- Prioritize women, youth, and displaced populations
- Support CSOs as facilitators of participation
3. Improve Communication and Information Access
- Expand affordable connectivity solutions in rural and IDP areas
- Use local languages and low-tech channels where necessary
- Institutionalize feedback and grievance mechanisms
4. Address Economic Constraints
- Link participation initiatives with livelihood and humanitarian support
- Compensate community representatives for time and transport where feasible
5. Promote Meaningful Gender Inclusion
- Move beyond quotas toward mentorship and leadership pathways for women
- Support women-only spaces to build confidence and a collective voice
6. Strengthen Coordination Among Governance Actors
- Improve collaboration between EROs, IEC departments, CSOs, and citizens
- Align service delivery with participatory planning and monitoring
Conclusion
Karenni State demonstrates both the promise and fragility of citizen-centered governance in conflict-affected contexts. While significant barriers persist, local governance structures have already created unprecedented spaces for participation compared to Myanmar’s past. With targeted support, these emerging systems can deliver more effective services, strengthen legitimacy, and contribute meaningfully to Myanmar’s future federal democracy.
This paper was published on 1st July, 2025.
This policy brief is based on Barriers to Citizen Participation in Local Governance for Effective Public
Service Delivery in Karenni State, Myanmar. Click Here For Full Research Paper
